Predicting What Students May Do Is More of an Art Than a Science

Chapter i: Introduction to Biology

1.2 The Procedure of Scientific discipline

By the end of this department, you volition be able to:

• Place the shared characteristics of the natural sciences
• Empathise the process of scientific enquiry
• Compare inductive reasoning with deductive reasoning
• Draw the goals of basic scientific discipline and practical science

Sentry a video about the Scientific Method.

Figure 1.xiv Formerly called blue-light-green algae, the (a) cyanobacteria seen through a light microscope are some of World'southward oldest life forms. These (b) stromatolites along the shores of Lake Thetis in Western Australia are ancient structures formed by the layering of cyanobacteria in shallow waters.

Like geology, physics, and chemistry, biology is a scientific discipline that gathers knowledge about the natural world. Specifically, biology is the study of life. The discoveries of biology are made by a customs of researchers who piece of work individually and together using agreed-on methods. In this sense, biology, like all sciences is a social enterprise like politics or the arts. The methods of scientific discipline include conscientious observation, record keeping, logical and mathematical reasoning, experimentation, and submitting conclusions to the scrutiny of others. Scientific discipline also requires considerable imagination and creativity; a well-designed experiment is commonly described equally elegant, or beautiful. Like politics, science has considerable applied implications and some science is dedicated to practical applications, such equally the prevention of disease. Other scientific discipline gain largely motivated past marvel. Whatsoever its goal, in that location is no doubt that scientific discipline, including biological science, has transformed human existence and volition go along to do so.

Effigy 1.15 Biologists may cull to written report Escherichia coli (Due east. coli), a bacterium that is a normal resident of our digestive tracts merely which is also sometimes responsible for disease outbreaks. In this micrograph, the bacterium is visualized using a scanning electron microscope and digital colorization.

The Nature of Scientific discipline

Lookout a video well-nigh the reductional arroyo of western science.

Biology is a science, only what exactly is science? What does the study of biological science share with other scientific disciplines? Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning "cognition") can be defined as knowledge about the natural world.

Science is a very specific way of learning, or knowing, about the world. The history of the past 500 years demonstrates that science is a very powerful fashion of knowing near the world; it is largely responsible for the technological revolutions that have taken place during this time. There are however, areas of knowledge and human feel that the methods of scientific discipline cannot be applied to. These include such things equally answering purely moral questions, aesthetic questions, or what can be generally categorized as spiritual questions. Science has cannot investigate these areas because they are exterior the realm of fabric phenomena, the phenomena of matter and free energy, and cannot exist observed and measured.

The scientific method is a method of enquiry with defined steps that include experiments and careful ascertainment. The steps of the scientific method will be examined in item later, but 1 of the nigh of import aspects of this method is the testing of hypotheses. A hypothesis is a suggested explanation for an event, which can exist tested. Hypotheses, or tentative explanations, are mostly produced inside the context of a scientific theory. A scientific theory is a mostly accustomed, thoroughly tested and confirmed explanation for a set of observations or phenomena. Scientific theory is the foundation of scientific cognition. In addition, in many scientific disciplines (less so in biology) there are scientific laws, often expressed in mathematical formulas, which describe how elements of nature will acquit nether certain specific weather condition. In that location is not an evolution of hypotheses through theories to laws as if they represented some increase in certainty almost the world. Hypotheses are the day-to-mean solar day material that scientists piece of work with and they are adult within the context of theories. Laws are concise descriptions of parts of the globe that are acquiescent to formulaic or mathematical clarification.

Natural Sciences

What would you await to encounter in a museum of natural sciences? Frogs? Plants? Dinosaur skeletons? Exhibits about how the brain functions? A planetarium? Gems and minerals? Or maybe all of the above? Science includes such diverse fields as astronomy, biology, computer sciences, geology, logic, physics, chemical science, and mathematics. However, those fields of science related to the physical earth and its phenomena and processes are considered natural sciences. Thus, a museum of natural sciences might contain whatsoever of the items listed above.

 

Figure 1.16 Some fields of scientific discipline include astronomy, biological science, computer science, geology, logic, physics, chemistry, and mathematics.

There is no consummate agreement when it comes to defining what the natural sciences include. For some experts, the natural sciences are astronomy, biology, chemistry, earth science, and physics. Other scholars choose to divide natural sciences into life sciences, which study living things and include biology, and physical sciences, which study nonliving affair and include astronomy, physics, and chemistry. Some disciplines such as biophysics and biochemistry build on ii sciences and are interdisciplinary.

Scientific Inquiry

One thing is common to all forms of science: an ultimate goal "to know." Curiosity and inquiry are the driving forces for the development of science. Scientists seek to sympathise the world and the way it operates. Two methods of logical thinking are used: inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning.

Inductive reasoning is a form of logical thinking that uses related observations to arrive at a general conclusion. This type of reasoning is common in descriptive science. A life scientist such as a biologist makes observations and records them. These data can be qualitative (descriptive) or quantitative (consisting of numbers), and the raw data can be supplemented with drawings, pictures, photos, or videos. From many observations, the scientist tin can infer conclusions (inductions) based on bear witness. Inductive reasoning involves formulating generalizations inferred from careful observation and the analysis of a large amount of data. Brain studies ofttimes work this way. Many brains are observed while people are doing a task. The part of the brain that lights upwardly, indicating activity, is then demonstrated to be the part decision-making the response to that task.

Deductive reasoning or deduction is the type of logic used in hypothesis-based scientific discipline. In deductive reasoning, the pattern of thinking moves in the opposite direction as compared to anterior reasoning. Deductive reasoning is a form of logical thinking that uses a general principle or law to forecast specific results. From those full general principles, a scientist can extrapolate and predict the specific results that would be valid as long equally the general principles are valid. For example, a prediction would be that if the climate is becoming warmer in a region, the distribution of plants and animals should change. Comparisons have been made betwixt distributions in the past and the present, and the many changes that have been found are consistent with a warming climate. Finding the alter in distribution is prove that the climate change determination is a valid one.

Both types of logical thinking are related to the 2 main pathways of scientific study: descriptive science and hypothesis-based scientific discipline. Descriptive (or discovery) scientific discipline aims to observe, explore, and detect, while hypothesis-based science begins with a specific question or problem and a potential reply or solution that can be tested. The purlieus betwixt these two forms of study is oftentimes blurred, considering well-nigh scientific endeavors combine both approaches. Observations lead to questions, questions lead to forming a hypothesis as a possible respond to those questions, and then the hypothesis is tested. Thus, descriptive scientific discipline and hypothesis-based science are in continuous dialogue.

Hypothesis Testing

Biologists written report the living earth by posing questions about it and seeking science-based responses. This approach is common to other sciences too and is often referred to every bit the scientific method. The scientific method was used even in ancient times, merely it was outset documented past England's Sir Francis Bacon (1561–1626), who set up inductive methods for scientific enquiry. The scientific method is non exclusively used by biologists but can exist applied to almost anything equally a logical trouble-solving method.

Figure1.17 Sir Francis Bacon is credited with being the first to document the scientific method.

The scientific process typically starts with an ascertainment (often a trouble to be solved) that leads to a question. Permit'southward think nigh a unproblematic problem that starts with an observation and apply the scientific method to solve the problem. I Monday morning, a student arrives at course and rapidly discovers that the classroom is likewise warm. That is an observation that likewise describes a problem: the classroom is likewise warm. The student then asks a question: "Why is the classroom so warm?"

Recall that a hypothesis is a suggested explanation that tin be tested. To solve a trouble, several hypotheses may be proposed. For instance, 1 hypothesis might be, "The classroom is warm because no one turned on the air conditioning." But there could be other responses to the question, and therefore other hypotheses may be proposed. A 2nd hypothesis might be, "The classroom is warm considering in that location is a power failure, and and so the air workout doesn't work."

Once a hypothesis has been selected, a prediction may exist fabricated. A prediction is similar to a hypothesis simply information technology typically has the format "If . . . then . . . ." For example, the prediction for the get-go hypothesis might be, "If the student turns on the air-conditioning, then the classroom will no longer exist too warm."

A hypothesis must exist testable to ensure that information technology is valid. For example, a hypothesis that depends on what a bear thinks is non testable, because it can never be known what a bear thinks. It should likewise be falsifiable, significant that information technology tin can exist disproven by experimental results. An example of an unfalsifiable hypothesis is "Botticelli's Birth of Venus is beautiful." There is no experiment that might show this statement to be simulated. To test a hypothesis, a researcher will behave 1 or more experiments designed to eliminate i or more of the hypotheses. This is important. A hypothesis can be disproven, or eliminated, but it tin can never exist proven. Scientific discipline does not deal in proofs like mathematics. If an experiment fails to disprove a hypothesis, and so we find back up for that explanation, but this is not to say that down the road a meliorate explanation will not be found, or a more advisedly designed experiment volition be plant to falsify the hypothesis.

Each experiment will take one or more variables and one or more than controls. A variable is whatsoever part of the experiment that tin vary or change during the experiment. A control is a office of the experiment that does not change. Wait for the variables and controls in the example that follows. Every bit a simple example, an experiment might be conducted to test the hypothesis that phosphate limits the growth of algae in freshwater ponds. A series of bogus ponds are filled with h2o and half of them are treated by adding phosphate each week, while the other half are treated by adding a salt that is known non to exist used by algae. The variable hither is the phosphate (or lack of phosphate), the experimental or treatment cases are the ponds with added phosphate and the control ponds are those with something inert added, such as the salt. Merely calculation something is too a control confronting the possibility that adding extra matter to the pond has an effect. If the treated ponds show lesser growth of algae, then we have institute support for our hypothesis. If they practise not, so we decline our hypothesis. Be aware that rejecting one hypothesis does not make up one's mind whether or not the other hypotheses can be accepted; it simply eliminates one hypothesis that is not valid . Using the scientific method, the hypotheses that are inconsistent with experimental data are rejected.

Figure 1.18 The scientific method is a series of defined steps that include experiments and careful observation. If a hypothesis is not supported by information, a new hypothesis can be proposed.

In the example beneath, the scientific method is used to solve an everyday problem. Which role in the example below is the hypothesis? Which is the prediction? Based on the results of the experiment, is the hypothesis supported? If it is not supported, advise some alternative hypotheses.

1. My toaster doesn't toast my bread.
2. Why doesn't my toaster work?
3. There is something wrong with the electrical outlet.
4. If something is incorrect with the outlet, my coffeemaker also won't piece of work when plugged into information technology.
5. I plug my coffeemaker into the outlet.
6. My coffeemaker works.

In practice, the scientific method is not every bit rigid and structured as information technology might at first appear. Sometimes an experiment leads to conclusions that favour a change in approach; ofttimes, an experiment brings entirely new scientific questions to the puzzle. Many times, science does not operate in a linear mode; instead, scientists continually draw inferences and brand generalizations, finding patterns as their inquiry gain. Scientific reasoning is more complex than the scientific method lone suggests.

Watch a video about the progress of science.

Basic and Practical Scientific discipline

The scientific community has been debating for the last few decades nearly the value of different types of science. Is it valuable to pursue science for the sake of simply gaining knowledge, or does scientific knowledge only have worth if we tin can use it to solving a specific problem or bettering our lives? This question focuses on the differences between two types of science: bones scientific discipline and applied scientific discipline.

Bones science or "pure" science seeks to aggrandize noesis regardless of the short-term application of that noesis. It is not focused on developing a product or a service of immediate public or commercial value. The immediate goal of basic scientific discipline is knowledge for knowledge's sake, though this does not hateful that in the terminate it may not result in an awarding.

In contrast, applied scientific discipline or "technology," aims to use science to solve real-world issues, making it possible, for example, to ameliorate a crop yield, find a cure for a particular disease, or save animals threatened by a natural disaster. In practical science, the problem is usually defined for the researcher.

Some individuals may perceive applied science as "useful" and basic scientific discipline as "useless." A question these people might pose to a scientist advocating knowledge conquering would exist, "What for?" A careful look at the history of science, however, reveals that basic knowledge has resulted in many remarkable applications of great value. Many scientists recollect that a basic understanding of science is necessary before an application is developed; therefore, engineering science relies on the results generated through basic science. Other scientists think that information technology is time to motility on from basic science and instead to find solutions to actual problems. Both approaches are valid. It is true that there are problems that demand immediate attention; however, few solutions would exist found without the help of the knowledge generated through basic science.

One case of how basic and engineering can piece of work together to solve applied problems occurred after the discovery of DNA structure led to an understanding of the molecular mechanisms governing Deoxyribonucleic acid replication. Strands of Dna, unique in every human, are found in our cells, where they provide the instructions necessary for life. During Dna replication, new copies of DNA are made, shortly before a cell divides to form new cells. Agreement the mechanisms of DNA replication enabled scientists to develop laboratory techniques that are at present used to identify genetic diseases, pinpoint individuals who were at a criminal offense scene, and decide paternity. Without basic science, information technology is unlikely that engineering science would be.

Some other instance of the link betwixt bones and applied research is the Homo Genome Project, a study in which each human chromosome was analyzed and mapped to determine the precise sequence of Deoxyribonucleic acid subunits and the exact location of each gene. (The gene is the basic unit of measurement of heredity; an individual'due south complete drove of genes is his or her genome.) Other organisms have also been studied equally office of this project to proceeds a better understanding of human chromosomes. The Human being Genome Project  relied on basic inquiry carried out with non-human organisms and, later, with the homo genome. An important end goal eventually became using the information for applied research seeking cures for genetically related diseases.

Figure 1.xix The Human Genome Projection was a thirteen-year collaborative attempt among researchers working in several dissimilar fields of scientific discipline. The project was completed in 2003.

While inquiry efforts in both bones science and applied science are usually advisedly planned, it is important to annotation that some discoveries are made past serendipity, that is, past means of a fortunate accident or a lucky surprise. Penicillin was discovered when biologist Alexander Fleming accidentally left a petri dish of Staphylococcus bacteria open. An unwanted mold grew, killing the bacteria. The mold turned out to be Penicillium, and a new antibody was discovered. Even in the highly organized globe of scientific discipline, luck—when combined with an observant, curious mind—can pb to unexpected breakthroughs.

Reporting Scientific Work

Whether scientific research is basic scientific discipline or engineering science, scientists must share their findings for other researchers to expand and build upon their discoveries. Communication and collaboration within and between sub disciplines of science are key to the advancement of knowledge in science. For this reason, an important attribute of a scientist'south piece of work is disseminating results and communicating with peers. Scientists tin share results by presenting them at a scientific meeting or conference, only this approach can achieve but the limited few who are present. Instead, most scientists nowadays their results in peer-reviewed manufactures that are published in scientific journals. Peer-reviewed manufactures are scientific papers that are reviewed, usually anonymously past a scientist's colleagues, or peers. These colleagues are qualified individuals, oft experts in the same research area, who judge whether or not the scientist's work is suitable for publication. The process of peer review helps to ensure that the research described in a scientific paper or grant proposal is original, meaning, logical, and thorough. Grant proposals, which are requests for research funding, are likewise field of study to peer review. Scientists publish their work and so other scientists can reproduce their experiments under similar or different conditions to aggrandize on the findings. The experimental results must be consequent with the findings of other scientists.

There are many journals and the popular press that do not use a peer-review arrangement. A large number of online open-access journals, journals with articles available without cost, are now available many of which use rigorous peer-review systems, but some of which do not. Results of whatsoever studies published in these forums without peer review are not reliable and should not class the footing for other scientific piece of work. In one exception, journals may let a researcher to cite a personal advice from some other researcher most unpublished results with the cited author'due south permission.

Section Summary

Biology is the science that studies living organisms and their interactions with one some other and their environments. Science attempts to describe and understand the nature of the universe in whole or in part. Science has many fields; those fields related to the physical earth and its phenomena are considered natural sciences.

A hypothesis is a tentative caption for an observation. A scientific theory is a well-tested and consistently verified explanation for a set of observations or phenomena. A scientific police force is a description, often in the course of a mathematical formula, of the behaviour of an aspect of nature under certain circumstances. Ii types of logical reasoning are used in science. Inductive reasoning uses results to produce general scientific principles. Deductive reasoning is a form of logical thinking that predicts results by applying general principles. The common thread throughout scientific research is the use of the scientific method. Scientists nowadays their results in peer-reviewed scientific papers published in scientific journals.

Science tin exist basic or applied. The chief goal of basic science is to aggrandize knowledge without any expectation of short-term practical awarding of that cognition. The master goal of practical research, however, is to solve practical bug.

applied science: a course of science that solves real-world problems

bones science: scientific discipline that seeks to expand knowledge regardless of the brusque-term awarding of that noesis

control: a office of an experiment that does not change during the experiment

deductive reasoning: a course of logical thinking that uses a general statement to forecast specific results

descriptive science: a form of science that aims to find, explore, and find things out

falsifiable: able to be disproven by experimental results

hypothesis : a suggested explanation for an event, which can be tested

hypothesis-based science: a form of science that begins with a specific caption that is and so tested

anterior reasoning: a form of logical thinking that uses related observations to arrive at a full general determination

life science: a field of science, such as biological science, that studies living things

natural science: a field of science that studies the physical globe, its phenomena, and processes

peer-reviewed article: a scientific report that is reviewed past a scientist's colleagues before publication

physical scientific discipline: a field of scientific discipline, such as astronomy, physics, and chemistry, that studies nonliving matter

scientific discipline: knowledge that covers general truths or the functioning of general laws, specially when caused and tested by the scientific method

scientific police: a clarification, frequently in the form of a mathematical formula, for the behavior of some attribute of nature under certain specific conditions

scientific method: a method of enquiry with defined steps that include experiments and careful observation

scientific theory: a thoroughly tested and confirmed explanation for observations or phenomena

variable: a part of an experiment that can vary or change

Media Attribution

• Figure 1.xiv
  • Blue-green alga past NASA © Public Domain
  • Stromatolites at Lake Thetis by Ruth Ellison © CC Past-NC (Attribution NonCommercial)
• Effigy 1.15 by Eric Erbe, digital colorization by Christopher Pooley, both of USDA, ARS, EMU. © Public Domain
• Effigy 1.16 past Image Editor © CC BY (Attribution)
• Figure ane.17 by Paul van Somer I © Public Domain
• Figure 1.nineteen past U.South. Section of Energy, Human Genome Projection © Public Domain

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